¬ü°ê¤å¾Ç­º­¶   /   The 20th Century -- First Half ¤G¤Q¥@¬ö -- «e¥b  /  §@®a  /  Ernest  Hemingway  ®ü©ú«Â
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Ernest Miller Hemingway

1899-1961
Writer, novelist, short story writer

Evelyn Sung/§º©y½o
 Family Background

 Apprenticeship:    Journalist     War Experiences      Writer

 Marriage

 Writings:       Short Stories       Major Novels       Other Writings

 Writing style

 Last Years

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 Family Background
  Ernest Hemingway was born in Oak Park, Illinois, on July 21, 1899. His father was a country physician, who taught him hunting and fishing, while his mother was a trained opera singer and a strong-willed feminist, who earned more money than her husband by teaching singing. In Hemingway’s youth, his father developed his natural love of sport and outdoor life, whereas his mother cultivated his interest in music and painting. He was led to play the cello and sing in the church choir. He spent his early years largely in combating the repressive feminine influence of his mother and nurturing the masculine influence of his father. Hemingway spent many summers at the family's cabin on Walloon Lake in the northern Michigan, where he often accompanied his father on professional calls. In Michigan, Hemingway found the material for his early fiction—"events of sudden tragedy and pathos endured by the local Indians; the life-and-death consciousness of the hunter and fisherman; and the adept participant and empathic witness that he discovered in himself."

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 Apprenticeship
  Journalist

Hemingway was very active both in academic activities and in athletic campaigns during his high school years. He played cello in the orchestra, was a member of the football and swimming teams, and wrote for the school’s newspaper and literary magazine. However, instead of attending the college, he took a job with Kansas City Star, the leading newspaper of the period. The Star developed a certain guidebook to train their reporters, requiring direct, declarative, vigorous sentence writing that had a permanent influence on Hemingway’s writing style.

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War Experiences   

In May 1918, Heminway volunteered for war duty with the Red Cross ambulance corps and left for service on the Italian front. In one of his duty rounds, he carried a wounded soldier to safety in spite of the injuries in his legs. Later there were over 200 mortar fragments removed from his legs. According to Peter Hays, "He was the first American to be wounded in Italy and survive, and American newspapers made a hero of him." The experiences in the war did shape him forever. He later returned again and again his writing to war experiences and especially to the wound in his short stories and in his novel, A Farewell to Arms (1929).  

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  Writer

During those months of convalesce in the hospital and with his family in Michigan, he decided to commit himself to fiction writing, wrote short stories based on his war experiences and started to submit short stories to magazines like the Saturday Evening Post, the most popular magazine of the day. However, his family did not support his interest in writing and forced him to find a remunerative job. He therefore worked as a part-time feature writer for Toronto Star. His excellent journalism and some successful experimental short stories in the magazines impressed Sherwood Anderson, who just visited Paris and offered to write letters of introduction to the expatriate writers in Paris. Hemingway therefore studied at the side of Gertrude Stein, who herself was trying to reinvent American prose styles and advised Hemingway to always "begin over again and concentrate" when writing. Besides, Hemingway was also influenced by the poet Era Pound, who was the founder of the imagist movement in poetry, and from whom Hemingway learned to use "economy of language and concentration of a single image" to produce an emotional reaction in the reader.

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 Marriage
  Hemingway married Hadley Richardson in 1921 and had a son named Bumby in 1923. Since he had come to Paris, he enjoyed himself in skiing, fishing, and watching bullfights, attaining experiences and inspirations from such activities in the Europe. The responsibility of child-rearing made Hadley become a less adventurous companion than she had once been. A big mistake that Hemingway could not forgive about Hadley was that she lost the briefcase containing all the manuscripts Hemingway had worked on through 1921 and 1922. Hemingway divorced Hadley and in 1926 remarried with Pauline Pfeiffer, who followed Hemingway to different places such as Montana, Idaho, Cuba, Africa, Spain, Italy, and various other points around the world. The year 1928 was an extremely tough year for Hemingway, in which Pauline suffered a traumatic cesarean section in giving birth to their son, Patrick, and in December, Hemingway’s father who suffered from diabetes and depression, committed suicide with a revolver and left him an emotional scar. In 1940, Hemingway divorced Pauline and married Martha Gellhorn, a vibrant and determined reporter with whom he had covered battles in Spain. Their marriage did not last long either, because Martha refused to subordinate her career to his own, insisting on continuing to travel and write when he wanted her attention on him. Although during the early part of the World War II, Hemingway struggled to control his alcoholism and the more frequent bouts of depression that began to haunt him, by 1944 Hemingway had returned to his old form, helped along by his adventures as a war correspondent and by his new romance with another lady journalist, Mary Walsh, his fourth and last wife.

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 Writings     
  Short Stories     

Hemingway wrote over one hundred short stories in two main periods: 1923-1927, during which he wrote about Nick Adams and other figures in Michigan and Italy in World War I; and 1933-1936, during which he dealt largely with more mature figures in a wider range of settings, including Africa and Florida . By depicting how Nick Adams coped with his life, these Nick Adams' stories were viewed as central works that "provide a psychological history for nearly all of Hemingway's protagonists, a record of trauma and disillusionment that leaves Nick disturbed at an early age, unable to sleep at night, desperately clinging to anything that can help him retain his tenuous grasp on sanity." Besides, a few of other stories—including "The Killers," "The Snows of Kilimanjaro," "A Clean, Well-Lighted Place," and "The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber"—are as well-known as Hemingway's best novels and are some of the finest stories in English. 

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Major Novels  

The Sun Also Rises (1926), A Farewell to Arms (1929), For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940), and The Old Man and The Sea (1952) are Hemingway's best novels. The Sun Also Rises is the first novel to depict American expatriates' life in Paris in the 1920s. The novel combines disillusionment with traditional values with a new hedonistic attitude, and epitomizes a generation by portraying the anguish of the Western world over the European war, over the shattered illusion of peaceful order that had been irrevocably lost. A Farewell to Arms , with its perfect blend of subject and methods, the tightly knitted themes of war and romance, is often considered Hemingway's most artistic work. Similarly, its themes manifest the destruction and despair pervading Europe and America during and after the war, and demonstrates the emotional condition of the lost generation—"the inception of their psychological trauma, the beginning of their disillusionment and cynicism, the end of their faith in religion and convention as guides to fulfillment ."

In For Whom the Bell Tolls , the longest and most ambitious work, Hemingway strove to weave grand themes of nature, technology, and the unity of mankind. His truer, deeper preoccupations were still with the solitary man proving his mettle and facing death alone. It is a great novel, humane, vivid, intensely memorable, yet it does serve for a larger idea—the protection of a democratic country against the forces of Fascism. If The Sun Also Rises is a novel of youth, and For Whom the Bell Tolls a novel of middle age, then The Old Man and the Sea is a novel of experience gained over the years. The Old Man and the Sea "is a story of skill, of all kinds of courage, of defeat in the flesh, of victory in the spirit, of pride humbled and self-respect earned, of suffering, and of final great peace of mind."

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  Other Wrtings

Death in the Afternoon (1932), Hemingway's first extended work of expository prose, presents the finest discussion of bullfighting in English. It is a handbook of bullfighting which "attempts to make intelligible for the novice the complex language, ritual, and drama of what Hemingway regarded as a tragedy rather than a sport." Green Hills of Africa (1935) represents a further experiment in nonfiction prose, serving as an essentially autobiographical account of an African safari Hemingway enjoyed in 1933-1934. The posthumous A Moveable Feast (1964) , a collection of autobiographical sketches covering his life in Paris from 1921 to 1926, established Hemingway among the masters of expository prose "for its sharp descriptions of scene and character, its record of literary struggle and growth, and even more for the controlled elegance of its style." There were also an experimental drama, The Fifth Column , written in 1937 and put one stage in 1940, and poems that reflected juvenile humor, imagism, or expressed love to Mary Welsh, who became his fourth wife.

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 Writing style
¡@ Hemingway's works tend to depict a harsh and disillusioned world where the traditional values became irreconcilable with the new view of life. Casting aside social conventions, the characters find little to sustain them except certain "codes" of conduct such as bullfighting, hunting, or fishing. These codes applied to daily life help to provide dignity and meaning in the absurd and pointless world where age, war, or psychological despair formulated a tragic destiny. Although many critics pointed out that Hemingway's increasing preoccupation with the myth of his own machismo was a catalyst for the devolution of his writing, the precision and concision, the hard, clean objectivity of his early works made his writing a piece of craftsmanship of showing rather than telling. Instead of using traditional expository mode to develop a story, Hemingway favors restricted narrative methods that "allowed characters to reveal themselves through their dialogue and actions, and meanings to develop from situations without authorial comment." One of his key theories is the "iceberg" principle, according to which "only a fraction of the meaning of a scene shows on the surface; the rest must be inferred from the individual details." Another similar device is synecdoche, "the traditional rhetorical device in which a part of something comes to signify the whole, as a few characters might come to stand for an entire generation." These devices, and the use of multiple narrators in some of the stories, help to portray a world where "there are few certainties, where the comforts of traditional assumptions have been stripped away, and where violence, conflict, and death are inescapable realities."

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 Last Years
¡@ Hemingway's last years were troubled. By 1960 Hemingway's depression had worsened, the repetitive patterns of gaining and losing weight, gaining and losing touch with reality, Hemingway was admitted to the clinic, where he was diagnosed with a variety of ailments and given electroshock therapy to treat his depression. Hemingway always held himself to the highest standards; he was not happy unless he was stronger than the next man, a better writer than the other, a better lover than the younger men. In the end he could not bear to live a life in which he could not triumph. In 1961, Hemingway who suffered from hypertension and depression, shot himself at home in Idaho.

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Reference

¡@

"Ernest Hemingway." Contemporary Authors Online , Gale, 2005.

"Ernest Hemingway." American Decades . Gale Research, 1998.

"Ernest Hemingway." Authors and Artists for Young Adults . Vol. 19. Gale Research, 1996.

"Ernest Miller Hemignway." Twenties, 1917-1929 . Gale Research, 1989.

"Ernest Miller Hemingway." Encyclopedia of World Biography , 2nd ed. 17 Vols. Gale Research, 1998.

"Ernest Hemingway." St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture . 5 vols. St. James Press, 2000.

"Ernest Miller Hemingway." Dictionary of American Biography, Supplement 7: 1961-1965 . American Council of Learned Societies, 1981.

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